Abstract

Interprofessional healthcare locally and globally is a key driver towards decreasing healthcare costs and improving patient outcome. The advances in patient care are increasing both the quantity and quality of life, but at the same time are generating vast amounts of knowledge. As medical students, we will be expected to step into existing interprofessional teams and work effectively. To do this successfully, we first must learn the skills to work as a member of a team, and second, educate ourselves about the roles of our peers. The concept of interprofessionalism can be expanded to include professions outside healthcare, and this is relevant in tackling global poverty.

“We have to work together to ensure access to a motivated, skilled, and supported health worker by every person in every village everywhere”

- Jong-wook Lee

Our world today is in a predicament with the disparity that exists in healthcare between the developed and developing world. The global advances in medical technology and diagnostic acumen are increasing exponentially; however, pockets of the globe remain severely underprivileged, polarising the healthcare landscape (1). On one hand, life expectancy is deteriorating in some of the poorest countries of the world due to preventable and treatable illnesses such as HIV, malaria, and diarrhoeal diseases (1). On the other, the richest nations in the world are facing an epidemic of obesity and its comorbidities – diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Today, healthcare providers are struggling to balance the basic healthcare needs of the global population, while providing complete and comprehensive health services to a demanding Western population.

Solutions to such problems are often intimidating and complex. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recognised that existing global-health systems are fragile and healthcare authorities will need to work together to increase the capacity and capabilities of the current infrastructure. Globally, healthcare providers need to work together towards improving health services under a common goal: the health and wellbeing of the patient, free of social and political distractions (1). Today, healthcare systems and their providers in Canada and elsewhere are beginning to address the central issues surrounding healthcare delivery. As it stands, the healthcare system is being stretched to its limits as the prevalence of preventable diseases and illnesses increases and healthcare moves towards a patient-centred model. More emphasis is being placed on improving patient wellness, as opposed to simply focusing on the patient’s disease. Inherent in this concept is the addition of alternative disciplines, both Western and Traditional, to the improvement of patient outcome. As we move forward healthcare will continue to progress towards an “interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional” (1) model, and we, as young professionals, are responsible for not only keeping pace with our studies, but also learning about the roles and practises of our future colleagues. To truly treat the whole patient and population, we must draw upon the strength and expertise of various disciplines.

The concept of multidisciplinary care presents us with an immense amount of perplexity and its definition and implementation can often become very complex. At its heart, multidisciplinary medicine carries the core concept of collaboration. Fundamentally, teams can draw expertise from multiple areas with the intention of maximising patient care (2). The increasing difficulty of treating patients is paving the pathway towards clarifying the purpose of interprofessional collaboration in our society. New advances in diagnostic and treatment modalities are requiring more experience, more expertise, and more intellectual capacity than ever before to solve the puzzles that present in our offices everyday (3).

We are currently presented with the task of acquiring the necessary skills to enable our own personal success as members of a team comprised of professionals from dynamic and diverse backgrounds. Additionally, the competency framework created by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (CanMEDS) expects that our medical education will provide us with the skills required to be successful physicians. How do we learn and develop the skills required to work as a member of an interprofessional team, and how do we ensure that our team is centred on the patient?

As medical students we need to be exposed to the concept of interprofessional collaboration during the initial footsteps of our professional education (3). Education is the foundation upon which we shape our future, and without it we have no scaffold onto which we can build our experiences. Early exposure to the concept of interprofessionalism is the key to being able to become professionals who have the ability to understand the spirit of interprofessional teamwork (4). Furthermore, it will also help clarify the roles and responsibilities of other healthcare professionals in order to build trust and a foundation for solidarity (5). Thus, effectively communicating in a team that improves patient care is a skill that needs to be learned in the preclerkship years as students are building their foundation for the way they will practice. Medical students and faculty across Canada have taken responsibility for this education outside the required curricular objectives. Thus, we need to push for interprofessional education in our core curriculums.

The principle of interprofessionalism is not only limited to the field of medicine. To truly create a sustainable change in healthcare, we must integrate all aspects of daily living into the interdisciplinary conversation. Expanding our outlook to a global level, international development ties health, education, and finance together to improve all outcomes. The years ahead are an opportunity to develop the skills that we all learned as children, and build upon it the knowledge and awareness of the global healthcare landscape. The pandemic of preventable illnesses is arguably our greatest challenge, and an interprofessional approach will play a key in tackling it.

Devina Wadhwa & Salman Ali
devinamay(a)gmail.com

References

1. The world health report 2006: Working together for health. The World Health Organization. Switzerland

2. Arcangelo VP. The myth of independent practice. Nursing Forum. 1994;29: 3–4

3. Chatterjee N. Infusing the interdisciplinary into Medical/Health Sciences Education: Vitamins or Vaccines? Med Educ Online [serial online] 2002;7:3 http://www.med-ed-online.org

4. Freeth D, et al. A critical review of evaluations of interprofessional education. Working Paper. Higher Education Academy, Health Sciences and Practice Network, London, UK, 2001 http://www.health.ltsn.ac.uk/publications/occasion

5. Frank JR, Jabbour M, et al. Report of the CanMEDS Phase IV Working Groups. Ottawa: The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. March, 2005

In today’s article, Samrah Zaigham discusses end of life care and patient-physician communication. Read it here

Physicians should realize that quality of care at the end of life is dependent upon effective communication

Like innumerable aspects of medicine, communicating well with the patient is a professional skill. The patient -physician communication includes both verbal and non verbal interactions(1)and the physician doesn’t necessarily have to be born with these skills; he can learn them just as he learns other aspects of medicine(1)through out his or her student life in the medical school or even during internship or residency, it is an ongoing process and a physician is supposed to use every patient that he takes care of as a source of learning and improving not just his clinical skills but his communication skills as well.

Regarding end of life care a physician should be well versed in the art of communicating bad news, discussion of treatment goals, advance directives, decisions regarding withholding or withdrawing therapy, euthanasia and also guiding the patients and their families through the last few hours of the patient’s life and early hours of death (2).

A large number of studies have documented that the patient-physician communication is suboptimal(3)and there are a number of areas which according to a patient a physician does not address at all(4).According to the patients, most physicians fail to discuss how long the patients will survive, their spiritual issues and the prognosis of their disease(5).Amongst the terminally ill patients honest and straightforward answers are of utmost importance(4)but most physicians resort to lecturing, blocking, collusion and premature reassurance(3)while discussing end of life issues.

Studies have found out that physicians spend 75% of their time talking but even then they tend to miss out important opportunities to allow a patient to discuss his personal values and fears regarding his therapy(4). A physicians ability to spend time in discussing the end of life issues with a patient, influences the patients level of anxiety, and every patient tends to respond in a different way(1). Some may be shocked(54%),some frightened(46%),some accept whatever has happened to them(40%) while still others show sadness(20%) or no worry at all(15%)(1),but generally it has been noted that patients tend to be more optimistic than the physician regarding their prognosis. Physicians are reported to deliberately withhold information in an effort to foster hope in their patients, which in the long-term may have both beneficial and negative effects. Hence, it is vital that a physician, in order to avoid any misconceptions regarding the patient’s conditions or any doubts regarding his treatment options, should provide the patient with adequate information and time. But unfortunately most physicians have not or do not receive any formal training (7) regarding improving their communication strategies.

Research conducted at Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, found out that approximately 72.7% of the students thought that effective communication skills training programs should be made a part of first two years of the medical school curriculum or at least before they began their clerkships. These training programmes should focus upon issues like insensitivity towards the patients, poor word selection, coping with the patients reaction to bad news and should also help in overcoming the fears of being unable to answer the patient’s questions(7).

Keeping these things in mind it has been noted that international medical schools are doing well in considering the relevance of topics when planning activities related to teaching and learning about communication with the terminally ill patients; unlike majority of medical schools in Pakistan. Hence, several models of communication have been identified to have enhanced students and residents interactive skills which can be implemented in every medical school globally.

One such model referred to as SPIKES (setting, perception, initiation, knowledge, empathy, summary and strategy) was developed by Buckman and is used by many medical schools. Several other approaches that have been identified include the didactic approaches in which physicians resort to lecturing as the main method of teaching communication skills but due to only limited assessment and lack of participation of learners this program is not widely accepted(8). As compared to didactic approaches small group discussions, small group peer role play and small group standardized role play approaches have an added advantage of better discussion opportunities, practice of learned skills with feedback and insight into patients perspective and so are generally more favored then other approaches(8).

One to one learning with standardized patients have been more widely accepted as they tend to provide an opportunity to learners to actually deliver bad news to patients though a standardized one, who can be trained to portray patient responses in a realistic manner(8). Almost all the interventions have demonstrated a significant impact upon the students self confidence and knowledge and behaviors and the choice of the program depends upon an institutions needs and resources, but according to Kurtz et al the helical model of communication ensures maximum skill development as it involves skill reinforcement through training(8)

Not only should the patient-physician but the physician-patient family communications should also be taken into consideration, and every physician during his student life should be taught to provide professional support to a patient’s family, avoid medical jargon(1) while talking to them, and provide them with information regarding the patients prognosis and treatment strategies.

Unfortunately throughout my 5 years at the medical school, I have never been made to undergo any communication skills program, the lessons regarding communicating with the patients are only restricted towards history taking and patient counseling with no emphasis upon issues arising at the end of life. And hence, when it comes to delivering bad news or discussing prognosis or any terminal physical disability with the patient, I have seen students as well as the physicians groping for the appropriate words. In addition to this they face difficulty in approaching the topic as well as in reading patient’s reaction and in displaying appropriate amount of emotion. Hence there is a dire need for interventional strategies regarding communication skills whether they are related to end of life issues or general daily communication with the patient.

One to one teaching with standardized patients may serve as a stepping stone in paving the road for a better patient physician communication, along with this program challenging clinical scenarios should be put in front of the student and their ability to deal with it should be assessed by an examiner through objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). Trigger videotapes showing dramatized bad news encounters can also be used to help students identify effective and non-effective behaviors on part of the physician.

Physicians should realize that quality of care at the end of life is dependent upon effective communication. Good communication not only benefits the patients but the physicians too, by improving relations between both the parties which in turn has a beneficial effect of improving the patients compliance and alleviating a physicians stress while discussing delicate issues with the patient. Therefore all future physicians should be made to practice and learn how to be a master communicator because a doctor not only has to be a good listener but a good communicator, and a guide for his patients through their time of distress.

Samrah Zaigham is a fifth year student at Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
samrah.zaigham(at)hotmail.com

References:

1) Stephanie J. Lee, Anthony L. Back, Susan D. Block, and Susan K. Stewart. Enhancing Physician-Patient Communication. Hematology 2002; 464-483.

2) Charles F. von Gunten; Frank D. Ferris; Linda L. Emanuel. Ensuring Competency in End-of-Life Care: Communication and Relational Skills.JAMA 2000; 284(23):3051-3057.

3) Anthony L. Back, Robert M. Arnold, Walter F. Baile, James A. Tulsky and Kelly, Fryer-Edwards. Approaching Difficult Communication Tasks in Oncology. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55; 164-177.

4) J.R. Curtis, R.A. Engelberg, E.L. Nielsen, D.H. Au, D.L. Patrick. Patient-physician communication about end-of-life care for patients with severe COPD. Eur Respir J 2004; 24: 200–205.

5) Tom Ahrens, Valerie Yancey and Marin Kollef .Improving Family Communications at the End of Life: Implications for Length of Stay in the Intensive Care Unit and Resource Use. Am J Crit Care. 2003; 12: 317-324.

6) Karen E. Steinhauser; Nicholas A. Christakis; Elizabeth C. Clipp; et al. Factors Considered Important at the End of Life by Patients, Family, Physicians, and Other Care Providers. JAMA. 2000; 284(19):2476-2482.

7) Gregory Makoul. Medical student and resident perspectives on delivering bad news. Academic medicine vol 73, no.10, October supplement 1998

8 ) Marcy E. Rosenbaum, Kristi J. Ferguson, Jeffrey G. Lobas. Teaching Medical Students and Residents Skills for Delivering Bad News: A Review of Strategies Academic Medicine VO L. 7 9, NO. 2 /February2004.

9) Wenrich MD, Curtis JR, Shannon SE, Carline JD, Ambrozy DM, Ramsey PG. Communicating with dying patients within the spectrum of medical care from terminal diagnosis to death. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 868–874.

Panel member Sir Iain Chalmers working in the Gaza strip in the 1960s

On Thursday 13th May 2010, the Oxford Society for Medicine held an audience-driven discussion exploring obstacles to health care delivery in the occupied Palestinian territory. The panel brought together six of the leading luminaries of the medical and surgical world, and in today’s article, Omar Abdel-Mannan, president of the OSM, and Imran Mahmud report on the event, and the current status of Palestinian health.

Palestinian health has never been in a worse state…. and it continues to deteriorate. Why and how can we use our resources here in the UK to support medical professionals in the West Bank and Gaza?

On the December 27th 2008, the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) launched Operation Cast Lead, a three week military assault on Gaza. 1366 Palestinians were killed, 313 of whom were children. International doctors, Mads Gilbert and Erike Fosse, witnessed at first hand, “the most horrific war injuries in men, women and children in all ages in numbers almost too large to comprehend” [1]. White phosphorous munitions were fired upon civilian areas in Gaza, leading to widespread severe chemical burns [2].

However, what we tend to forget is that the 18 month sea and land blockade on Gaza, prior to the IDF operation and the siege which continues to this day precipitated the collapse of Gaza’s healthcare infrastructure. This is evident by the lack of basic medical equipment, such as patient trolleys, ventilators and electronic monitors for vital signs in hospitals like Al-Shifa, where Mads and Erik worked. Infant mortality and growth stunting rates in children (representing reliable indicators of health status) have either stagnated or increased between 2000-2006 [3]. A WHO survey on quality of life in 2005 found it to be lower in the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) than all other countries studied.

Further, malnutrition, unemployment, public curfews and restrictions on movement are daily realities. The separation wall, constructed between Israel and the West Bank and declared illegal by the International Courts of Justice, continues to impede movement of Palestinians during everyday activities, and divides neighbourhoods and households [4]. Reports of patients needing life-saving operations and critical care being denied access and women giving birth at checkpoints are commonplace [5]. The need for travel permits delays access to hospitals for patients, medical students and health workers, with commuting times increasing from 30 minutes to more than 2.5 hours on a regular basis.

Wall inside Bethlehem

Chronic exposure to violence, humiliation and insecurity has bred pervasive demoralization and despair amongst Palestinians. Yet, within this context, Palestinians have cultivated a collective social resilience to occupation in the face of daily struggles [6].

This sad state of affairs for the health of Palestinians is couched within a larger context of disjointed and inadequate public health provision and healthcare infrastructure that developed over generations of different regimes. A Palestinian Ministry of Health, established after the Oslo accords in 1994 (along with the Palestinian National Authority), inherited a neglected health service from the Israeli military after decades of degradation. Current services remain inadequate for the health needs of the people, due to continuing neglect, poor management and corruption. Israeli restrictions since 1993 on the free movement of Palestinian goods and labour across borders between the West Bank and Gaza have certainly made matters much worse. The lack of any control by the Palestinian National Authority over water, land, and the environment within the oPt has made building an effective health system virtually impossible. To compound this further, the reliance on financial assistance from a multiplicity of donors, complete with their different agendas has also resulted in programme fragmentation [7].

Erez checkpoint in Gaza

So what is the solution?
Building an effective healthcare system requires command over resources, self-determination, sovereignty and free movement of people, all absent in the Palestinian territories, particularly in Gaza. This is the argument put forward by a number of world renowned academics, doctors and surgeons in a conference organized recently by myself and a number of students at Oxford University: ‘Healthcare under siege: supporting medical education in the occupied Palestinian territories’. In this gathering the expert speakers drew on their decades of personal experiences in the oPt to expose the devastating effect of crippling economic blockades and military attacks on civilian health and access to medical care, especially in Gaza. Who are these ‘experts’? Sir Iain Chalmers – A co-founder of the UK Cochrane Collaboration, Sir Terence English – the first surgeon to perform a heart transplant in the UK in 1979, Dr. Richard Horton – Editor-in-Chief of The Lancet, to name but a few.

Some of the speakers and panellists who were present at the conference: Oxford Teaching Group Dececember 2009 L to R – Dr Knight, Dr Little, Mr Dudley, Mr Nick Maynard, Dr Marfin, Mrs George, Mr Bruce George

Oxford Teaching Group April 2008 L to R – Prof Kenwright, Mr Britton, Mr Nick Dudley, Mr Maynard, Mr George

Earlier this year in February, Dr Horton and Sir Iain Chalmers visited Gaza, gaining access with the help of the charity Medical Aid for Palestinians. In his ten minute talk, Dr Horton vividly portrayed the image of a disintegrating healthcare system and a humiliated people: “Going through checkpoints is like going through cattle gate”. One of the pressing needs, as he argued, is to systematically train medical researchers and postgraduate students to build a solid foundation of medical professionals for the future. Supporting the universities, he added, is crucial to better understand the Palestinian case, to understand their needs, and to focus on supporting human rights.

Meanwhile, Prof Colin Green from University College London (and UNESCO Chair of Cryobiology with the Ukraine Academy of Science) was a key player in the extraordinary construction of a medical school from scratch based at Abu Deis in the West Bank in 1994 (with an original intake of 34 students), which today has grown to over 800 students in four campuses. As he highlights, family practice in the area is very poor and it seems that all doctors end up in the hospitals: “We need champions of primary care,” enthused Prof Green. More specialists are also need in the region, with only 1 pathologist and 2 cardiologists in the whole of the West Bank and a clear lack of Psychiatrists.

So why should we care about this region?
I personally believe, as do all the speakers, that the UK has a special responsibility towards the people of Gaza and the West Bank, due in no part to our historical ties. The Balfour declaration of 1917, which involved Britain giving away a country that didn’t belong to us, to two different national movements, was always bound to end in tears. It is thus our politicians’ responsibility today to clean up this mess, and to uphold the promise made in that same declaration that ‘nothing would be done to harm the civil and religious and human rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine’.

Wall alongside road in West Bank

By discussing the UK’s wider role and moral responsibility towards the Palestinian people in Gaza and the West Bank, I am confident that we will develop and implement innovative strategies to make a positive on-the-ground difference to civilian health, access to medical services and medical education there. Oxford Brookes University’s historic decision in March to establish a scholarship programme for Gazan students (set up with the help of Dr Iain Steadman, Director of Development and one of the attendees at the conference) is one such example of the tangible difference that can be made through academia. In fact, within hours of the conference ending, a number of enthusiastic medical and humanities students from the university had already formed a student movement aiming to push through a number of short and long term proposals; including the facilitation of twining Al Quds University medical school (based in Abu Dies) to Oxford University medical school. I very much hope that this will promote elective exchanges, the sharing of ideas and teaching materials, and act as a catalyst for similar programmes at other UK medical schools.

I couldn’t help think during the conference: Why have such distinguished members of the medical elite, with hugely successful careers in their respective fields, invested so much energy in this cause – sometimes putting their jobs on the line as a result? These are people with no political, religious or cultural affiliation to the Palestinian issue, fighting for a cause that is thousands of miles from their doorstep. The simple answer is that at the end of the day, doctors and surgeons work in the business of helping people – the original Hippocratic Oath clearly states: “I will keep them (the sick) from harm and injustice”. That is undoubtedly a political statement. All medics should be championing human rights and tackling injustice across the world, wherever it rears its ugly head.

While a political solution remains distant, ordinary Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank continue to suffer. The physical, psychological and social well-being of Gazans will remain poor, whilst the structural impediments and barriers to development remain in place. As the WHO’s Commission on Social Determinants of Health states:

“The conditions in which people live and work can help to create or destroy their health”.

The situation is grave, but it is not impossible. Within all the darkness, beacons of light across remain bright across both sides of the wall. The Director of the Institute of Community and Public Health at Birzeit University (in the West Bank) wrote in a statement to the audience at Oxford University, that all of us can individually do something to help: by supporting medical education, by visiting the region to see at first hand the challenges of daily Palestinian life, and by advocating for justice and human rights, we can make a difference.

For me the heartfelt passion and commitment of the speakers resonated with my core values as a future doctor and reminded me of why I chose medicine in the first place. Inspired by this event, I am taking the first steps on a journey that will take me to a land of challenges and resilience. I truly believe that every medic should go the occupied territories and see with their own eyes the health of ordinary, innocent people under siege.

Omar Abdel-Mannan and Imran Mahmud are both fifth year medical students at Oxford University
omar.abdel-mannan(at)medschool.ox.ac.uk

References:

1. Gilbert M, Fosse E. Inside Gaza’s Al-Shifa hospital. The Lancet 2009; 373: 200-202

2. James Hider, Sheera Frenkel. Israel admits using white phosphorous in attacks on Gaza. The Times. 24th Jan 2009

3. Rita Giacaman Rana Khatib, Luay Shabaneh, Asad Ramlawi, Belgacem Sabri, Guido Sabatinelli, Prof Marwan Khawaja, Tony Laurance. Health status and health services in the occupied Palestinian territory. The Lancet 2009. 373; 837-849

4. United Nations. Gaza Strip inter-agency humanitarian fact sheet. March 2008 http://domino.un.org/pdfs/GSHFSMar08.pdf (accessed Aug 2, 2008).

5. Hanan Abdul Rahim, Laura Wick , Samia Halileh, Sahar Hassan-Bitar, Hafedh Chekir, Graham Watt, Marwan Khawaja. Maternal and child health in the occupied Palestinian territoriy. The Lancet 2009; 272: 967-977

6. M Rutter, Resilience in the face of adversity: protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder, Br J Psychiatry 1985; 147: 598–611

7. Rajaie Batniji, Yoke Rabaia, Viet Nguyen–Gillham, Rita Giacaman, Eyad Sarraj, Prof Raija–Leena Punamaki, Hana Saab, Will Boyce. Health as human security in the occupied Palestinian territory. The Lancet 2009. 373; 1133-1143

Waiting area of a public sector hospital

In today’s article, Kiran Ejaz discusses the effects of gender and prejudice on healthcare delivery in Pakistan.

Lately, healthcare systems have stirred up debates across the globe.(1) Disparities in delivering healthcare are an established phenomenon. Researchers have identified racial stereotyping, age, disability, socioeconomic standing and religion contributing to such disparities. (2) These are noted to be at every level of care in terms of quality, cost and access to healthcare. (3)

Developing nations of South Asia, have extensive healthcare infrastructures on paper but they seldom deliver at the patient’s care level. Diverse ethnic groups with their unique cultures and linguistic barriers add any the existing challenges. Poverty, social injustice, gender bias, and spreading of both communicable and non-communicable diseases are issues that hinder adequate delivery of healthcare in the region; there is a need for extensive promotion and delivery of quality healthcare.(4)

In Pakistan the picture is no different from other regional countries where the arguments surrounding healthcare remain in the primary phase. We do not have a flawless system to start with ,however; males and the rich are preferred over the rest of the population, as they are the economic stabilizers. This influences the policy makers’ decisions regarding which social strata get what quality of healthcare and at how far they have to travel to get it. Gender remains one of the key factors affecting access to healthcare, and prejucdice customs in most areas of the country incline to save the male gender of all ages. (5) Nusrat S. et al identified three delays leading to high maternal mortality in the country. 88.5% of pregnant women were not aware of the quality healthcare facilities, 39.7% of women lived far away from such facilities and had to travel long distances in emergencies. Village woman are often carried on beds across fields to rough roads where after hours of waiting they would get transportation to far away healthcare facilities. The last delay identified in 49% of women, was that on reaching these facilities, if needed they were not given blood donations by their male family members. (6) It is thought amongst the uninformed and lesser educated, that blood is energy , therefore by donating it the males would lose their power to earn and head the household.

Out patient department of a public sector hospital

An example from a physician’s clinical practice is that in our trade booming city of Karachi, a patient was referred four times in two days from tertiary care hospitals due to none availability of a generic snake anti-venom. His family had to sell their family house to pay for the drug available in a private care facility, but by that time he had developed advanced stage complications that could have been easily avoided if treated in time.

A small study from Karachi’s most visited tertiary care hospital, Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Center, reported problems faced by patients. Illiteracy and poverty contributed to 80% of the problems along with 56% non-compliance to medical advice and inferiority complex leading to thinking that they are not being correctly treated in 52% of the patients.(7) Since the basic healthcare system has collapsed and medical attention is provided in tertiary care hospitals or expensive private clinics, these patients have no alternative healthcare resource.

Old age is another reflection to the healthcare delivery in Pakistan. There are ineffective and few old homes for the elders provided by non-government organizations. Most elders live with ,and are dependent on their children. Baig LA et al investigated that the majority of elders are chronic disease sufferers and there is a vacuum of social and healthcare services for them.(8) Issues of elderly and gender biases have been the state of Pakistani’s healthcare system from its existence. People from developed countries have recently voiced their concerns against their healthcare. Our generations have been living with such a healthcare system for long.

Identification of any problem should always be coupled with solutions. Some are in the process of finding solutions by planning systemic approaches to healthcare interventions such as the usage of Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators in the socio-economically deprived. Although, it’s link to healthcare delivery disparities is still questionable.(9)

In today’s world of wars, others have found conflict to be the root cause behind social determinant of health. They advocate making pro-equity policies leading to capacity building for healthcare providers, and to eliminate barriers to access healthcare for any group. Such interventions would address factors of financial and gender blockade to ensure good health for all.(10)

Despite exploring new alternatives to improve the healthcare system, researchers faced criticism due to limitations in their designs. There have been approaches such as studying the race-country mortality disparities. Using geographic, county-level data to explore inequalities has helped policy makers, however there is a need to emphasize on social process.(11)

The common elements among all these solutions are also emphasized by Mukhopadhyay A. Cooperation and intersectoral collaboration for health can help resolve most if not all issues in providing equal healthcare to developing nations, including Pakistan.(4) Any proposed solution will be useless if it is made without keeping in view the structural factors behind disease pathology for both genders.(5) There has been improvement in the past but progress is now stagnant. Suggestions of availability and access to healthcare are important especially in rural areas. (12)

Some have moved many folds with development of academic community partnership such as the Community Physicians’ Network. They look into specific matters of the health care of African-American and other minority. (16) A similar local success story of public-private partnership seems to promote and provide women’s health to a selected pocket of women.(17)

Primary health care is vital for the better functioning of health systems. Decentralization is an opportunity to revisit our Alma Ata agenda and serve our patients.(18) Ervin PC. suggests optimizing community power by local decision making, providing education and employment to reduce poverty that is the cause behind many cases.(19) The focus of inequality of healthcare delivery in Pakistan is based on gender issues and non-availability of life saving medications in time. Solutions need to be tailored according to our cultural norms. The government officials and policy makers should advocate and implement strategies to provide immediate, free health checkups, support treatment and educate the people on health prevention and promotion.

Dr Kiran Ejaz is currently a Student Masters in Epidemiology and Biostatistics at Dow University of Health Sciences.
drkiranejaz@gmail.com

References:

1. Nathanson CA. Who owns health inequalities? Lancet. 2010 Jan 23;375(9711):274-5.

2. Dykes DC, White AA, 3rd. Getting to equal: strategies to understand and eliminate general and orthopaedic healthcare disparities. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2009 Oct;467(10):2598-605.

3. Gallegos A. Retail medicine: the cure for healthcare disparities? J Healthc Manag. 2007 Jul-Aug;52(4):227-34.

4. Mukhopadhyay A. South Asia’s health promotion kaleidoscope. Promot Educ. 2007;14(4):238-43.

5. Zaidi SA. Gender perspectives and quality of care in underdeveloped countries: disease, gender and contextuality. Soc Sci Med. 1996 Sep;43(5):721-30.

6. Shah N, Hossain N, Shoaib R, Hussain A, Gillani R, Khan NH. Socio-demographic characteristics and the three delays of maternal mortality. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2009 Feb;19(2):95-8.

7. Saeed A, Ibrahim H. Reasons for the problems faced by patients in government hospitals: results of a survey in a government hospital in Karachi, Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc. 2005 Jan;55(1):45-7.

8. Baig LA, Hasan Z, Iliyas M. Are the elderly in Pakistan getting their due share in health services? Results from a survey done in the peri-urban communities of Karachi. J Pak Med Assoc. 2000 Jun;50(6):192-6.

9. McComb JM, Plummer CJ, Cunningham MW, Cunningham D. Inequity of access to implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy in England: possible causes of geographical variation in implantation rates. Europace. 2009 Oct;11(10):1308-12.

10. Bornemisza O, Ranson MK, Poletti TM, Sondorp E. Promoting health equity in conflict-affected fragile states. Soc Sci Med. Jan;70(1):80-8.

11. Pappas G. Geographic data on health inequities: understanding policy implications. PLoS Med. 2006 Sep;3(9):e357.

12. Sathar ZA. Changes in mortality in Pakistan 1960-88. Pak Dev Rev. 1991 Winter;30(4 Pt 2):669-76.

13. Bostick N, Morin K, Benjamin R, Higginson D. Physicians’ ethical responsibilities in addressing racial and ethnic healthcare disparities. J Natl Med Assoc. 2006 Aug;98(8):1329-34.

14. Vanderbilt SK, Wynia MK, Gadon M, Alexander GC. A qualitative study of physicians’ engagement in reducing healthcare disparities. J Natl Med Assoc. 2007 Dec;99(12):1315-22.

15. Laudicella M, Cookson R, Jones AM, Rice N. Health care deprivation profiles in the measurement of inequality and inequity: an application to GP fundholding in the English NHS. J Health Econ. 2009 Dec;28(6):1048-61.

16. Ofili E, Igho-Pemu P, Lapu-Bula R, Quarshie A, Obialo C, Thomas C, et al. The Community Physicians’ Network (CPN): an academic-community partnership to eliminate healthcare disparities. Ethn Dis. 2005 Autumn;15(4 Suppl 5):S5-124-7.

17. Shaikh BT, Haran D, Hatcher J. Women’s social position and health-seeking behaviors: is the health care system accessible and responsive in Pakistan? Health Care Women Int. 2008 Sep;29(8):945-59.

18. Shaikh BT, Kadir MM, Pappas G. Thirty years of Alma Ata pledges: is devolution in Pakistan an opportunity for rekindling primary health care? J Pak Med Assoc. 2007 May;57(5):259-61.

19. Erwin PC. Poverty in America: how public health practice can make a difference. Am J Public Health. 2008 Sep;98(9):1570-2.

Today’s feature comes to us from Ana Zelić, Kristina Špoljarec and Tin Knežević, who discuss the current and future status of palliative care in Croatia with Professor Anica Jušić.

We talked to professor Anica Jušić, a neurology specialist, who has been promoting paliative care in Croatia for many years. In 1994 she organized The first Croatian Hospice and paliative care symposium,and is a founder of Croatian hospice friends association. Since then she organized over 40 symposia and wrote over 30 articles. Since 1999 she runs the first home paliative care team. Considering the upcoming congress, we decided to get an insight into this subject.

First we would like to ask you is the development of paliative medicine in proportion to the increasing percentage of the elderly population? Or does it depend on the incidence of malignant diseaeses? How can it be explained?

No! Paliative care began to develop significantly in the 1950’s. The discovery of symptome reducing drugs, such as pain and anxiety (non-steroid antiinflammatory drugs, anxiolytic drugs…) ,and the renewed validation of opiates as powerful analgetics encouraged this to happen. Due to the administration of these drugs, the presence of medical staff, especially doctors, during the period of dying became inevitable. Before that, providing care during the difficult time of dying was assigned to family members, volunteers an sometimes nurses. On the other hand, many intensive care units were established, where patients die surrounded by machines, almost completely dehumanized, and parted from their loved ones. At that time the term ˝good˝ death was often mentioned, which connotes the patients right to choose the location of his/her death, most people choose their own homes. This kind of way to die, in the presence of your loved ones, is a better way to die, because it increases the quality of the remaining time to live. This is also done by drug administration, especially analgetics, to reduce pain. Psycho-social problems also need to be dealt with, since many of such occur in these situations. Finally, it comes down to dealing with existential and spiritual issues. The main goal is the patients acceptance of the inevitable and death fear reduction. This way patients can condone to parting with their loved ones, and even give comfort to their families, give a positive advice instead of despair and disintegration. That is the domain of paliative medicine. An older term is hospice care, but it is no longer suitable.

(more…)

What is a Nudge?

Many people have at some point wanted to lose weight, exercise more or work harder but have struggled with finding the motivation to do so. Nudges are ways in which we can structure choices so that we find it easier to overcome short term factors which prevent us achieving these goals. Indeed, political opinion is in accordance, with President Obama and David Cameron embracing this concept, appointing pioneers of the concept Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler as advisors. Nudges have a variety of applications in healthcare.

Behavioural economics gives us an understanding of why such problems occur. Economists and psychologists have shown through various studies that we have a preference for immediate gratification over long-term benefits (1) and a tendency to underestimate the costs associated with our behaviour (2).

Although those politically to the left believe the state should intervene and prevent behaviours that adversely affect us, libertarians argue that any intervention would curtail individual freedom. Nudges aim to bridge this divide by altering the way that choices are presented such that beneficial decisions are more likely, while maintaining freedom of choice (3). This is politically attractive because in addition to avoiding accusations of paternalism, governments can often enact such changes at minimal cost.

Who to Nudge

I will be discussing how three groups of people can be nudged to improve healthcare outcomes. Firstly, individuals who make adverse lifestyle choices can be encouraged to improve their habits in order to prevent disease. Secondly, individuals can be encouraged to act in a way which benefits others in the population. Finally, healthcare professionals can be encouraged to optimise their performance.

How to Nudge

There are several ways in which choices can be tailored to optimise benefit (3). The first way to influence choice is to change the default option. The default option is selected automatically unless an alternative is specified, so with organ donation the default option is not to donate your organs. Many people will go with the default, either through inertia, or because it is the path of least resistance; however, those that feel strongly enough are free to choose options other than the default. The second way is to anticipate the mistakes that people will make, and to take steps to correct those errors. For example, on NHS wards, there are sometimes observers present to make sure staff are washing their hands! Giving people feedback allows them to adjust their behaviour according to the results they see: losing weight on an exercise programme could provide further motivation to continue with the programme. Indeed, it is generally a good idea to highlight the importance of incentives behind an action. Tied together with this is helping people understand the consequences of their choice to their welfare. This should be explained simply and clearly. Finally, it is advisable to structure complex choices. Having lots of choices can be overwhelming, so simplifying choices could facilitate the choosing of healthy options.

Nudging People

The aim is to encourage people to live a better lifestyle, with calorie control and exercise, and to discourage smoking and excessive drinking. As well as bettering the health of the individual, there are also population benefits, for example, passive smoking is a risk factor for lung cancer. A recent study found a 23% increased risk of lung cancer in those with spouses that smoked (4). In a socialised healthcare system such as the NHS, there is also an incentive to maximise health benefits from taxpayer money input into the system: encouraging a healthier lifestyle is cheaper than dealing with the problems of a poor lifestyle (5).

An obvious way to intervene is to make people aware of the consequences of their choices is through educational campaigns with clear and memorable messages. The “5 a day” advertising campaign encouraged people to achieve a simple target for fruit and vegetable consumption, facilitating healthy dietary choices (6). Labelling of food has also been simplified under a traffic light system (7), so that it is easy to compare the relative merits of different choices in a supermarket environment.

Nudging can help people make a commitment to their goals. A savings programme has been initiated by the Green Bank of Caraga in the Phillipines (8), where someone who wants to quit smoking will regularly deposit money into an account. After six months they have a urine test and can only keep the money if the result is negative. This is an excellent way of anticipating that people may be tempted to resume smoking despite wanting to quit.

A third way of improving health would be to create barriers to consumption. Julian Le Grand, an adviser to Tony Blair, has previously suggested the introduction of a smoker’s permit in order to discourage people from smoking (9). Smoking would still be legal, but smokers would face an additional administrative burden to be permitted to smoke.

Organ Donations

One way in which individuals can benefit others in the population is through organ donations. Britain faces a chronic lack of supply of donors for organ transplants: at the end of March 2009, 7877 patients were listed as actively waiting for a transplant (10). This lack of supply is thought to be due to inertia arising from the opt-in system, whereby people must express a desire to donate. A survey conducted in the USA showed that while 97% of respondents supported the idea of transplantation, only 43% had signed up as donors, suggesting people are not acting on their opinions (11). This undersupply could be addressed through changing the default option by switching to an opt-out system. When an opt-out system was introduced in Spain, the number of donors rose from 14.3 per million population in 1989 to 25 per million in 1994 (12).

One potential problem with this system is the implication that the state has ownership of a body after death; it is controversial whether there is sufficient justification for appropriation in terms of an individual’s obligation to the state. An alternative with proven success in France is an opt-out system where the family of a potential donor are able to refuse permission for donation (13).

Nudging Organisations

As well as encouraging individuals to make decisions to benefit themselves and the general population, nudges can encourage healthcare professionals to optimise their performance. Performance tables in the NHS can allow for comparisons between different doctors, hospitals and trusts. They are thought to encourage competition, which drives improvement. Furthermore, identification of the best performing hospitals could allow the examination of best practice, and identification of the worst performing hospitals could allow a focus on their improvement. The Institute of Healthcare in the USA has attempted to start this process in the field of cystic fibrosis (14). The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation compiled data tables using quantitative parameters to judge the quality of care given at different hospitals. The rankings for Cincinnati Children’s Hospital were low, so they made their rankings available to their patients and examined best practice at better ranked hospitals under the guidance of the institute. This has resulted in a marked improvement in outcome measurements.

There are solutions to a number of the imperfections of NHS performance tables. Apparent differences in hospital death rates and other parameters can be explained by and adjusted for the variability of illnesses in different regions (15). There is a need to take into account statistical considerations that mean smaller hospitals are more likely to come near the top or bottom of performance tables (16). There is also a role of chance in determining rank which can be mitigated by using control charts (17).

As medicine incorporates ever more complex procedures with multidisciplinary teams taking care of patients, it can be hard to keep track whether procedures have been followed without mistakes or missing steps. An Israeli study found that 178 actions per day were carried out for the average patient in an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and that there was an error rate of about 1% (18). This may seem small, but can have can have dramatic consequences. To take central line infections as an example, there are 80,000 line infections in the USA per year, a 4% infection rate. Despite the small percentage, the result is an increase in the patient’s time in the ICU and on the fatality rate. Professor Peter Pronovost, of Johns Hopkins University, advocates structuring these complex choices by using a checklist. He obtained authorisation for nurses in his department to stop doctors skipping steps on the checklist. As a result, there were only two line infections over a 15 month period. It is estimated that 43 infections and 8 deaths were prevented, and over $2,000,000 was saved (19).

Technological advances can be used to improve outcomes within health systems. The number of avoidable cardiac arrests in intensive care units has previously been highlighted as a clinical problem (20). Early detection of patients at risk is possible through monitoring of vital signs (21); however, deterioration is often missed because patient monitors generate a high number of false alerts so are ignored. Visensia® is a software system that uses data fusion technology to remove these false positives, so alerts are no longer ignored. Clinical trials in the UK and USA have yielded positive results and the product has been awarded FDA approval (22).

Conclusion

There are critics of libertarian paternalism, who believe that the state cannot decide what impacts on an individual’s happiness, yet in the healthcare arena, there are clear indications that people have a desire to perform certain actions which they find difficult to carry out, or that they do not fully appreciate the magnitude of their actions. From helping people make the best choices for themselves and for others to helping healthcare professionals deliver quality care, nudges have already shown the potential to be an effective means of improving our health.

Sanjay Budhdeo is a fourth year medical student at New College, Oxford University in the UK
sanjay.budhdeo(at)new.ox.ac.uk

References

(1) Bickel W, Odum A, Madden G. Impulsivity and cigarette smoking: delay discounting in current, never, and ex-smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 1999;146(4):447-454.

(2) Williams T, Clarke VA. Optimistic bias in beliefs about smoking. Aust.J.Psychol. 1997;49(2):106-112.

(3) Thaler RH, Sunstein CR. Nudge. : Yale University Press; 2008.

(4) Brennan P, Buffler PA, Reynolds P, Wu AH, Wichmann HE, Agudo A et al. Secondhand smoke exposure in adulthood and risk of lung cancer among never smokers: A pooled analysis of two large studies. Int. J. Cancer. 2003;109(1):125-131.

(5) Woolf SH. The power of prevention and what it requires. JAMA 2008;299(20):2437.

(6) Top Tips – 5 A DAY. Available at: http://www.5aday.nhs.uk/topTips/default.html. Accessed 11/08/2009, 2009.

(7) Food Standards Agency. Available at: http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/foodlabels/trafficlights/, 2009.

(8) Poverty Action Lab : Projects. Available at: http://www.povertyactionlab.org/projects/project.php?pid=65. Accessed 13/08/2009, 2009.

(9) Le Grand J. The giants of excess: a challenge to the nation’s health. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A 2008;171(4):843-856.

(10) Statistics. Available at: https://www.organdonation.nhs.uk/ukt/statistics/statistics.jsp. Accessed 13/08/2009, 2009.

(11) Kurtz SF, Saks MJ. Transplant Paradox: Overwhelming Public Support for Organ Donation vs. Under-Supply of Organs: The Iowa Organ Procurement Study, The. Journal of Corporation Law 1995;21:767.

(12) Spital A. Conscription of cadaveric organs for transplantation: A stimulating idea whose time has not yet come. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2005;14(01):107-112.

(13) Barber K, Falvey S, Hamilton C, Collett D, Rudge C. Potential for organ donation in the United Kingdom: audit of intensive care records. BMJ 2006 May 13;332(7550):1124-1127.

(14) Mossialos E, Costa-Font J, Rudisill C. Does organ donation legislation affect individuals’ willingness to donate their own or their relative’s organs? Evidence from European Union survey data. BMC Health Serv.Res. 2008 Feb 27;8:48.

(15) Gawande A. Annals of Medicine: The Bell Curve : The New Yorker. Available at: http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/12/06/041206fa_fact. Accessed 04/09/2009, 2009.

(16) Jarman B, Gault S, Alves B, Hider A, Dolan S, Cook A, et al. Explaining differences in English hospital death rates using routinely collected data. BMJ 1999 Jun 5;318(7197):1515-1520.

(17) Tu YK, Gilthorpe MS. The most dangerous hospital or the most dangerous equation? BMC Health Serv.Res. 2007 Nov 15;7:185.

(18) Adab P, Rouse AM, Mohammed MA, Marshall T. Performance league tables: the NHS deserves better. BMJ 2002 Jan 12;324(7329):95-98.

(19) Gawande A. Annals of Medicine: The Checklist. Available at: http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/12/10/071210fa_fact_gawande?printable=true. Accessed 17/08/2009, 2009.

(20) Hodgetts TJ, Kenward G, Vlackonikolis I, Payne S, Castle N, Crouch R, et al. Incidence, location and reasons for avoidable in-hospital cardiac arrest in a district general hospital. Resuscitation 2002 8/1;54(2):115-123.

(21) Nurmi J, Harjola VP, Nolan J, Castren M. Observations and warning signs prior to cardiac arrest. Should a medical emergency team intervene earlier? Acta Anaesthesiol.Scand. 2005 May;49(5):702-706.

(22) Visensia FDA Clearances. Available at: http://www.obsmedical.com/visensia-fda-clearances. Accessed 27/08/2009, 2009.

Introduction

Much has been written about the determinants of health at population level, with extended discourse about the influence of a range of socio-political and economic factors on a society’s health. Such a discussion is contextually dependent. In this article, I am interested in examining the geographic distribution of health in Britain to understand how and why the aforementioned factors express themselves in the health of a contemporary developed society that provides a nationalised health service. I believe the concept of a divide in wealth and health between the North and South of the country provides an interesting, if not controversial, starting point for a disquisition on Britain’s health and social inequalities.

The National Health Service (NHS) was established in 1948 with the aim of integrating previous health services into a publicly financed and publicly managed system. The NHS is “predominantly free at point of use [and] accessible to all” (1). In Britain, there is a long history of observing, analysing and addressing health and social inequalities (2). This culture has revealed that, despite the inception of the NHS, equitable health care goals are rarely met. The Black Committee Report offers the most integrated analysis of health care provision and outcomes in Britain. This paper noted that the health system has manifest patterns of inequality in access to, and in the structure of, health care as well as in trends of utilisation and in health outcomes (3). The most important contextualising factors are poverty and class structure, which, to a very large extent, follow a spatial pattern across the country (3).

The North-South Divide: A Real or Imagined Phenomenon?

Geographically distributed inequalities in Britain have been broadly considered within the dichotomous North-South divide, even though the exact location of such a divide is difficult to define (4). In the past, much controversy has enrobed this notion of a divide with pertinent questions put forward such as: Does a North-South divide actually exist? If yes, where is it and what are its key features? (4). Furthermore, a nuanced approach to understanding social inequalities has been espoused and the North-South divide has been criticised for being a “generalisation that obscures more than it illuminates” (Sunday Times, 1987).

Naturally this begs the questions: why discuss a North-South divide and is it important? Firstly, it is vital to establish the fact that the acceptance of a North-South divide does not necessarily imply that the North is uniformly poor and the South uniformly affluent. Substantial evidence suggests that local variations do not negate the validity of this socio-geographic divide, on the grounds that the concentration and the more entrenched nature of deprivation of the North vis-à-vis the South often means that individuals with otherwise similar characteristics fare better in the South than in the North (4). The North-South divide can thus illuminate how socio-geographic factors contribute to inequalities in health.

Figure 1: “Mapping the best and the worst health in Britain. The areas (parliamentary constituencies) containing the million people with the highest and lowest premature mortality (standardised mortality ratios (SMR) for deaths under 65 years of age) in Britain, 1991-5. (Average standardised mortality ratio for England and Wales=100)”(2).

Historical Context

Throughout the modern era, there have been, on aggregate, incremental changes in Britain’s economy, society and culture. Although these small-scale changes occur consistently and gradually, there are periods of time in which larger-scale changes that are associated with long waves economic development when significant historical events occur (4). Examples include the Industrial Revolution, the growth of heavy industry in the North, and even the manufacture of armaments during periods of global conflict. An important observation about these economic vicissitudes has been that certain regions, usually in the South, have consistently been at the forefront of successive waves of economic expansion, while others, typically in the North, have had a “roller coaster” experience (4).

In terms of health and social inequalities, government policy in response to these historical and economic events has also played a fundamental role in determining the distribution of health and wealth. A historical view of Britain’s health reveals that geographical inequalities were lower and fell during periods of more progressive and inclusive government policy; this is most marked during the period of 1930 – 1950 (5). Furthermore, events between 1950 and 1980 also suggest that as social equity grew, geographical inequalities in health diminished (5).

Income Inequality and Spatial Mortality

The decades following 1980, when the Conservative government came to power, indicate that the converse to the above also holds true. A clear relationship between income inequality and spatial inequality in mortality is demonstrable (see Figure1) (5). It is noteworthy that overall mortality rates throughout Britain have decreased in this time period however the variation between regions and within regions is considerable (6). The increasing mortality differentials closely correlate with increasing levels of income inequality and, yet again, these patterns conform to the geographic divide between North and South. Social policy can mitigate the impact of health inequalities as evidenced by a slight decline in mortality inequality using the excess deaths measure that occurred during a brief period of reduced social inequality in the last 30 years (7).

Figure 2: “Slope index of inequality (SII) for life expectancy (by area level poverty) 1992-4 to 2001-3, and income inequalities (Gini coefficient) 1981 to 2002-3. The first years shown relate to income inequality trend, the years in brackets relate to life expectancy data, which are three year aggregates. The Gini coefficient (the ratio of the area under the Lorenz curve to the area under the diagonal on a graph of the Lorenz curve) is a measure of inequality where 0 represents complete equality (all people have the same income) and 100 represents the most extreme inequality (one person receives all the income)”(2)

Government Action and Social Inequality

To illustrate the impact of governmental policy on spatial inequalities further, two important examples are examined below. These examples are, to an extent, representative of a number of socio-economic policies that have widened geographic inequalities in income, employment, housing and health.

Regional Development Agencies

As already discussed, inequalities in health between rich and poor areas of Britain widened in the 1980s and 1990s. “The current [Labour] government has repeatedly expressed its intention to reduce these” inequalities (2). However, the government has enacted a number of opposing policies that undermine its attempts to achieve social equity. Despite launching Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) in 1999 to “spread economic prosperity and opportunity to everyone in the nine regions of England” (8), the government recently diverted £300m from RDAs to subsidise housing markets for first-time buyers but the redistribution of these funds followed a geographic pattern. Housing prices are highest in the South and therefore this region had the greatest need for housing subsidies. The largest proportion of money invested in the housing market, was sourced from northern RDAs. In effect, the North-South divide has been growing at the “express and deliberate” action of government (9).

Pension Policy and Geographic Inequality

Britain’s pension policy initiated a move towards private funding of pensions. The macro-economic benefits have been far-reaching and include avoiding a crisis in public finance in the late 1990s, a reduced need for government borrowing and a boost to equity capital. However, it has also created new dimensions of welfare among pensioners as well as a highly uneven and incomplete geographic pattern of pension coverage (10). As such, parts of the country, predominantly in the North, have relatively low levels of pensioner income and, in these areas, there are likely to be significant concentrations of pensioners with very low living standards(10), and therefore poorer health outcomes.

Conclusion

It is essential to note that this article has only highlighted a few examples of how political action has not always supported the government’s commitment to social equity. However, they must be considered in light of the government’s repeated declarations to tackle health and social inequalities, which have often resulted in successful public health campaigns. It will be interesting to see how the current economic recession will affect NHS expenditure and service delivery. I wonder whether the economic climate will encourage conservative fiscal policies and thereby reduce public spending. If this is the case, will the North be more affected than the South in terms of healthcare investment?

In conclusion, the North-South divide may be a simple binary, which will not be taken as axiomatic by many, but it is still useful in that it draws attention to fundamentally important social inequalities in Britain. A strong case can definitely be put forward to support “more potent and redistributive policies” (2, 9, 10). A very wide body of research supports the notion that, on balance, more equitable societies enjoy better health through a shift from self-interested consumerism to greater collaboration and social harmony (11). It is my hope that the ethos of a fair and equitable health service remains at the heart of any government’s health and social policy.

Simukai Chigudu is a TLS RA and a final year medical student at Newcastle University
simukaichigudu(at)googlemail.com

References

1. Mays N. Origins and Development of the National Health Service. In: Scambler G, editor. Sociology as Applied to Medicine. London: Saunders; 1997. p. 205-11.

2. Shaw M, Smith GD, Dorling D. Health Inequalities And New Labour: How The Promises Compare With Real Progress. British Medical Journal. [Education and Debate]. 2005;330(7498):1016-21.

3. Ellencweig AY, Graestein O. Inequity in Health: A Case Study. European Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;5(2):244-50.

4. Green AE. The North-South Divide in Great Britain: An Examination of the Evidence. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 1988;13(2):179-98.

5. Mitchell R, Dorling D, Shaw M. Inequalities in life and death: what if Britain were more equal?: Bristol University2000.

6. Leyland AH. Increasing Inequalities in Premature Mortality in Great Britain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2004;58:296-302.

7. Shaw M, Gordon D, Dorling D, Mitchell R, Smith GD. Increasing Mortality Differentials by Residential Area Level of Poverty: Britain 1981-1997. Social Science & Medicine. 2000;51:151-3.

8. RDA. England RDAs – Who we are. 1999 [8 November 2009]; Available from: http://www.englandsrdas.com/who_we_are/.

9. Dorling D. The North South Divide: Is the Gap Growing. In: Lecture P, editor. Newcastle upon Tyne2009.

10. Sunley P. Pension Exclusion in Grey Capitalism: Mapping the Pensions Gap in Britain. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 2000;25(4):483-501.

11. Pickett K, editor. Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Medsin National Conference; 2009 25 October 2009; University Nottingham.

An overview of Progress and Concerns for the Future

Introduction

On November the 27th 2001, the WHO and other donors met in Islamabad, Pakistan at the “Preparing for Afghanistan’s Reconstruction” conference (1). Before the Soviet invasion of 1979, Afghanistan did not possess an adequate health care system and most of the population did not have access to basic health care (1).

After eight years, how much has Afghanistan’s health care system improved? How much of the population has access to medical care and to what level? Are the original plans laid out by the WHO and other organisations to rebuild the health care system developing as originally envisaged? Is it even possible to build a quality health care system in Afghanistan under the current security conditions and more importantly is it possible for this system to be based on a Westernised system, in a war-torn country which has a very different culture to that of Western countries? These are some of the questions that I will set out to answer in this article.

Afghanistan’s Health System 2001 – 2009: An Overview

In December 2001 the UN Development Programme (UNDP) recognised that it would be essential for public and private health services to be rebuilt since malnutrition and other diseases were beginning to threaten lives throughout Afghanistan (2). In 2001 it was estimated that life expectancy was only 47 years and that the infant mortality rate was 165 per 1000 live births, maternal mortality 1700 per 100 000, child mortality (>5years) 275 per 1000 born, 85 000 children under 5 have died from diarrhoea, 1 million have died as a result of the 23 years of conflict, more than 5 million refugees have been created and that adult literacy is close to the world’s worst (3,4).

A Basic Package of Health Services and Contracting Services to NGOs

The above is the setting and the challenge that government and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) faced in Afghanistan from the outset and still face today. Initially some of the richest nations in the world pledged to provide US$ 5.5 billion over 5 years and in the first year 800 million was put into the health sector (5). In order to begin using the money from the international community to provide health services, the Ministry of Health (MoH) in 2003 began to contract the services to NGOs in order to provide a Basic Package of Health Services (BPHS). Under these circumstances the NGOs and private companies bid competitively for the contracts to supply the services (See table 1) (6,7).

Contracting health services to NGOs in developing countries can be seen as a good thing for a number of reasons. Firstly it draws on private sector expertise, it increases effectiveness and efficiency through competition and allows governments to concentrate on planning.8 It also allows governments to focus on setting standards, financing, regulation and allows for a rapid expansion of health services (8).

Afghanistan’s National Expenditure on Health Services

Originally, it was estimated that the cost of providing the BPHS would be US$ 4 per capita per year (9). The WHO estimates this to be a third of the amount neccessary (10). It is now thought that the health sector is severely underfunded and that the annual budget actually allows for US$ 1 per capita per year (11). However, statistics published by the WHO show that from 1998 to 2005 the overall expenditure on health has actually increased (See Figure 1) but perhaps not enough to give an adequate spending per capita per year.

The way in which NGOs spend their budget can create inequity in what is spent per capita per year in different provinces in Afghanistan, as shown by Ameli and Newbrander.7 For example, there was a range of US$ 1.60-10.55 over thirteen provinces. This inequity in expenditure could also mean inequity in the way in which the BPHS is delivered. Figure 2 shows the differences in cost per capita over the thirteen provinces.

Table 1: The Basic Package of Health Services (8).

Figure 1: Afghanistan’s national expenditure on health services from 1998 – 2005 (Graph based on Geneva: WHO Statistics, 2006 (12))

Figure 2: Costs per capita over the thirteen provinces which were studied (7).

Afghanistan’s Primary Health Care System

Emergency Medicine

Emergency medicine in Afghanistan is provided mainly by NGOs and the military (13). The US military is in the process of training the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) in emergency medical care. However, adequate emergency departments do not exist and partially equipped emergency departments are staffed by general practitioners since emergency medicine is not recognised as a specialty in Afghanistan (13). Somewhere in the region of 700 ambulances have been purchased but most of the progress in emergency medicine has been made in the military rather than civilian sector (13).

Maternal Health Care

Maternal mortality is a subject of great importance in the rebuilding of health care in Afghanistan since the mortality rate is 1700 per 100,000 live births. This figure is extremely large, especially when compared with neighbouring countries like Pakistan (500 per 100 000) and Iran (76 per 100 000) (14). Bartlett et al, in 2005 showed that out of 2,560 maternal deaths, 357 of them were among women of reproductive age (15 – 49 years) (15). The main causes of death were ante-partum haemorrhage and obstructed labour. In 74% of cases where women died, their newborn also died (15). It was also shown that the death rate was higher in some provinces than others and therefore there are other factors that increase the likelihood of infant death. The main factor is the distance of patients from the health facilities since it has also been shown that as a patients remoteness from the health facility increases utilisation of health care and decision making to seek assistance decrease (14, 15).

Mental Health Care

Afghan background and culture is very different from that of the West and therefore the causes of mental illness are different and linked to cultural issues and are exacerbated by the violence that the country has experienced in the last thirty years. It has already been shown that traumatic events have affected the population and that depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is prevalent; more so in the case of individuals with a disability (16, 17). In order to set up an effective mental health care system, providers from outside of Afghanistan must make every effort to understand the cultural causes of mental illness.

The way in which mental illness is treated in Afghanistan differs greatly from that of the West. 30 km east of Jalalabad there is a “treatment facility” called Samachel, where patients are treated over a period of forty days. Treatment involves chaining them to walls by their ankles, starving them and reading passages from the Koran ( the Holy book of Islam) (18).

Communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases are a major problem in war-torn parts of the world and are likely to be a major burden on the Afghan health system. During a war there are a number of factors which cause the spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, measles, malaria, cholera and there are also many deaths from dehydration due to untreated diarrhoea. According to WHO statistics (19), in 2007 there were 433,412 reported cases of malaria, 1,141 reported cases of measles, 13,213 cases of tuberculosis, 100 cases of HIV in adults (>15 years) per 100,000 of the population (19). Some success has been achieved from vaccination campaigns such as that from December 2001 to May 2002, which achieved a greater coverage of measles vaccinations (20). Also during the latest outbreak of cholera in Afghanistan in 2005, 144,605 suspected cases were reported with 170 deaths. However it is thought that the BPHS has allowed adequate preparation thereby preventing more deaths (21).

Concerns for the Future of Health Care in Afghanistan

Lack of Infrastructure

The lack of infrastructure in Afghanistan has not only been caused by decades of fighting but there was little infrastructure there to begin with. The lack of infrastructure means that there are few medical facilities and few health care professionals as well as a lack of training facilities for health care providers. The Afghan population is estimated at 23 million and there are only around 17,500 health professionals to serve the population (22). There is also a lack of psychiatrists in Afghanistan with only eight in the entire country (23).

One of the main concerns is that there is a lack of female health professionals in Afghanistan and this stems from the days of Taliban rule, since they forbid the education of girls (6). Problems with the transport infrastructure also have effects on health care, since it is difficult for some people to access health care due to their remoteness from health care centres. For example certain areas of Afghanistan are inaccessible during winter due to snow (7).

Security Issues

Without adequate security there can be no health care system in Afghanistan. The security situation affects the health care system in a number of ways. Firstly, it affects the utilisation of the health care system by the inhabitants of various regions. Secondly, during fighting health care facilities are inevitably damaged rendering them ineffective. Thirdly, attacks on health care professionals further degrade the government’s ability to provide health care in different regions.

The utilisation of health care by the population has been physically prevented for example by road blocks which are sometimes set up every 5km with armed men demanding taxes (6). Ameli and Newbrander (7), showed that security had adverse effects on the quality of health care provided. Attacks on members of the community who have used health care could also lead to an under utilisation of health care.

Cultural Differences

The overall situation in Afghanistan is complicated by cultural differences between Westerners and the Afghan population. This is also true with regards to the problems faced in establishing the health care system. It has been said by many that a western-style democracy cannot be imposed on a Middle Eastern country such as Afghanistan due to different cultural practices and traditions. The same is true for health care. Due to cultural differences a Western health care system cannot be imposed in Afghanistan. There are specific cultural requirements in Afghanistan that must be satisfied, therefore this means that more women will need to be recruited into the health care sector. The reason for this is that according to Afghan culture and customs a female patient must only be treated by a female health worker. Currently women only have limited access to obstetric care, since they must be treated by a female doctor and there is a lack of female doctors (23).

Conclusion

It has been stated in many articles that Afghanistan is a post conflict setting. This is untrue. Afghanistan is very much in the grip of conflict, however the nature of the conflict may lead some to believe that the war is over simply because the invasion ended eight years ago. It is not the aim of this work to discuss in detail the security issues, but it must be understood by those who set policy for the rebuilding of Afghanistan’s health care system that the war in Afghanistan is not a conventional conflict. The war in Afghanistan is an insurgency and is therefore likely to be a protracted conflict of possibly thirty to forty years. The reconstruction will take place against a backdrop of violence and will therefore be extremely difficult to achieve. The Afghan government must also take more responsibility for rebuilding the health care system since it will not be economically possible for Western governments to fund the health care system as well as provide security, although some NGOs may be able to alleviate some of the burden.

Kris Wightman is studying for an Masters in Medical and Molcular Biosciences at Newcastle University in the UK
kris.wightman(at)yahoo.com

References

1. Ahmad, K. (2001) WHO and humanitarian aid groups take first steps to rebuild Afghanistan, Lancet 358: 1884

2. Ahmad, K. (2001) UN agencies size up the task of rebuilding Afghanistan, Lancet 358: 2060

3. (2001) Reconstruction of health care in Afghanistan, Lancet 358: 2009

4. Ryan, J.M. (2005) Health care in Afghanistan, World Journal of Surgery 29: s77-s79

5. Ahmad, K. (2002) Regional instability further slows afghanistans reconstruction, Lancet 360: 736

6. Ahmad, K. (2003) Warlords and bandits slow Afghanistan’s efforts to rebuild, Lancet 362: 710-711

7. Ameli, O., Newbrander, W. (2008) Contracting for health services: effects of utilization and quality on the costs of the Basic Package of Health Services in Afghanistan,
Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86: 920-928

8. Palmer, N. et al, (2006) Contracting out health services in fragile states, BMJ 332: 718-721

9. Richards, T. (2003) Afghanistan struggles to build post conflict health care, BMJ 326: 837

10. Ahmad, K. (2004) Health and money in Afghanistan, Lancet 364: 1301-1302

11. Sabri, B. et al (2007) Towards a sustainable delivery of health services in Afghanistan: options for the future Bulletin of the World Health Organization 85: 712-718

12. Afghanistan: national expenditure on health (online data). Geneva: WHO; 2006. Available at: http://www.who.int/nha/country/AFG.xls

13. Acerra, J. et al (2009) Rebuilding the health care system in Afghanistan: an overview of primary care and emergency services, Int J Emerg Med 2: 77-82

14. Khorrami, H. et al (2008) Maternal healthcare needs assessment survey at Rabia Balkhi hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 101: 259-263

15. Bartlett, L.A. et al (2005) Where giving birth is a forecast of death: maternal mortality in four districts of Afghanistan, 1999-2002 Lancet 365: 864-870

16. Scholte, W.F. et al. (2004) Mental health symptoms following war and repression in Eastern Afghanistan JAMA 292: 585-593

17. Cardozo, B.L. et al. (2004) Mental health, social functioning and disability in post war Afghanistan, JAMA 292: 575-583

18. Van de Put, W. (2002) Addressing mental health in Afghanistan Lancet 360: s41-s42

19. WHO (2009) World Health Statistics 2009 WHO Press Geneva

20. Dadgar, N. et al. (2003) Implementation of a mass measles campaign in central Afghanistan, December 2001 to May 2002, Journal of Infectious Diseases 187: s186-s190

21. Kakar, F., Ahmadzai, A.H., Habib, N., Taqdeer, A., Hartman, A.F. (2005) A successful
response to an outbrake of cholera in Afghanistan, Tropical Doctor 38: 17-20

22. Richards, T., Little, R. (2002) Afghanistan needs security to rebuild its health services, BMJ 324: 318

23. Okumura, J. (2002) Correspondence Lancet 359: 1072

Ron Thomas Varghese writes about the impact of power and politics on global health, including personal observations of the role of these factors in his home country, India.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The health of every citizen is a top priority for every country irrespective its system of governance. However the question still remains, can such an ideal concept of health be attained by all countries and governments?

Among the systems of governance available today, democracy seems to be the best option through which the goal of health for all can be achieved. Examples of the failure of other systems of governance to achieve this goal of health are many. One stark reminder is the failure of Communism to achieve health in USSR and Eastern Europe, even whilst trying to establish a welfare state with equal rights for all. Also an analysis of political history and health is incomplete without mentioning the unethical and despicable attempts by the Nazi doctors in a fascist form of governance to create a perfect Aryan race. Critics may argue that democracy too has its pitfalls, as the choices of the majority are imposed on the rest irrespective of whether or not they are morally and ethically right.  However it must remembered that the majority need not always be right. For example, the Nazis were actually democratically first voted to power in Germany, leading to the worst part of German medical history. In summary, having viewed the pros and cons of democracy, I strongly feel that democracy is the only plausible form of governance that is suited to achieve this goal of health for all

The current major controversy in preventing our achievement of health is the escalating food prices and scarcity of food in poor countries. Such a situation was never contemplated in lieu of the industrial revolution, green revolution and the biotech revolution. These revolutions were thought to be the key to eradicating hunger from the world.  Many theories exist to explain the reasons behind these food shortages.  According to one un-named president of a developed country is because people (gluttons) from India and China are eating too much nutritious food (1). Others have blamed the crisis on the fact that developed countries are using food grains to produce biofuel in their efforts to achieve energy security.(2,3).  Such a policy decision when viewed from the perspective of poorer countries simply lacks sensitivity and humane considerations, especially when millions are starving in Africa. However both these explanations sound bizarre and unconvincing.  Yet, despite not being able to identify the cause of global food shortages, we must not dismiss the significance of the situation.  In fact regimens have fallen on account of hunger, for example the downfall of Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia and the rise of Khmer rouge in Cambodia. If the crisis is due to the developing countries self-interest, they learn to be more holistic in their policy making.  To achieve greater political stability throughout the world, should food security not be a higher priority compared to energy security?

The withdrawal of the governments from the healthcare sector is being viewed with dismay by most people in third world countries. Quality subsidized health care for the poor and needy is an urgent necessity. Leaving this healthcare solely to the private sector is fraught with danger. Hillary Clinton’s statement that 40 million in the USA were not covered by medical insurance came as a shock to many in the third world. The dangers of leaving health care and insurance totally to private firms leaves to many people, especially the poor, being unable to afford even basic healthcare.

The world is truly becoming smaller world, and this is increasingly forcing our doctors to be global physicians. A good knowledge about the global health problems, beyond the confines of the doctors own country, is essential.  In fact, I feel that thinking globally and acting locally ought to be the mantra of every doctor. The sacking of many South Asian doctors, who many argue formed the backbone of NHS, was unfortunately a retrograde step in this direction. Every country has to safeguard the rights of its citizens, but such ‘political stunts’ will only serve to work against the ideals of global health.

With the advent of globalization most goods available in the west are now available in developing nations. However, drugs seem to be an exception to this rule. Providing good quality drugs at an affordable cost ought to be given more attention by pharmaceutical companies. Antiretroviral drugs especially must be made available to poor African countries at subsidized rates to battle the epidemic proportion of AIDS.  This will ensure equitability in the availability of drugs however strong political will and courage is necessary for such progress to occur.

The flipside of globalization is medical tourism.  This is a system in which the relatively well off from developed countries swarm to developing countries in search of low cost health care.  In such a scenario it is the poor in these “tourism destinations” that suffer as it draws doctors away from the core basic healthcare system. Third world political leadership needs to address these concerns urgently.  If they fail, the health disparity will only widen between the rich and poor of these countries.

Writing from India, which contributes approximately 1/6^th of the world population, I feel that the healthcare situation in India deserves a mention.  Countries like India, experiencing an epidemiological transition following the economic boom, are now finding it tough to tackle the double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases. On one hand India has to deal with the malnutrition and poverty affecting the poor and on the other the burden of lifestyle diseases like diabetes and hypertension is reaching epidemic proportions in the middle class. Only strong political will can achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth in health. For an optimal health scenario, the economic growth and prosperity of any country has to be spread equally. The problems in this area come up when arbitrary decisions are taken by the governments without consulting doctors in matters pertaining to health care. For example, the political establishment in India has decided to implement one year of rural service to all fresh medical graduates to serve the rural poor. For such a programme to succeed a programme, it has to get the goodwill and support of the doctors concerned.  No doctor would oppose such a programme if they were given a decent remuneration for their services in such difficult rural areas (4). However with the government proposing paltry salary for these doctors, there have been vehement protests. As an Indian doctor I do feel that it is the honor of a doctor that is at stake. No financial or political reasons can justify such a punishment of doctors, paying them peanuts for doing this noble work.  On a positive note, the Indian government is contemplating a ban on smoking in public places .This has come across stiff resistance from the tobacco lobby and trade unions, despite both parties possessing strong political clout. The ministry is determined to implement the proposed ban. They view public smoking as an important issue of public health, and are highly concerned about the adverse effect it has on children who view smoking as a symbol of being chic and fashionable.

Politics and health are interrelated to such an extent that they can never be considered separately.  Much remains to be done in the area of politics and health, but I have hope that our generation of doctors working together with politicians as a team for global health will greatly improve the situation.

Ron Thomas Varghese is a intern house surgeon at the Government Medical College, Kerala, India.

ronthomasv@gmail.com

References

(1) http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/07/AR2008050703405.html

(2) http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-33406820080505

(3) http://www.lk.iwmi.org/press/coverage/pdf/_Guardian%20Unlimited,%20UK.pdf

(4) http://www.indianexpress.com/story/254987.html